General Veteran & Armed Forces Gambling Data

2023

• Veterans were over 4 times more likely to have gambled in the past and did so on more activities than non-veterans(Dighton, 2023).
• 3.8% of veterans scored in the range for problem gambling (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• 43.1% of veterans (and 6.5% of non-veterans) experienced problem gambling (Dighton, 2023).
• Veterans were over 10 times more likely to be distinguished by problem gambling than non-veterans (Dighton, 2023).
• 8.2% of veterans scored in the range for at-risk gambling (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• UK veterans were at increased risk of problem gambling (Dighton, 2023).
• Veterans gambled on more activities than their non-veterans, and their gambling was motivated by negative reinforcement (escape from or avoidance of distress).

2022

• Of recently transitioned veterans
  • 13.4%  reported gambling harm (Metcalf et al, 2022).
  • 4.6% of recently transitioned veterans reported problem gambling (Metcalf et al, 2022).
  • 8.8% of recently transitioned veterans reported at-risk gambling (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• 11.2% of active military young adults aged 18–27 years showed the highest rate of at-risk gambling compared with older age groups (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Army service veterans reported higher levels of at-risk gambling and problem gambling when compared to Air Force personnel (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Non-commissioned Officers (NCOs)s / Other Ranks reported increased rates of both at-risk and problem gambling (when compared to Commissioned Officers) (Metcalf et al, 2022).

2019

• A skeptical view of safety was associated with a higher sense of personal invincibility, and together with lack of deliberation predicted variations in danger-seeking scores (Breivik et al., 2019).
  

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Veteran Co-Occurring SUD Data

2020

• Gambling Disorder is frequently comorbid with other psychiatric disorders (Etuk et al., 2020).

2019

• High sensation seeking veterans experiment more with drugs, and they also seek stimulation in drinking, smoking, and sexual activities (Breivik et al., 2019).

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Veteran College & Young Adult Data

2022

• 11.2% of younger adults aged 18–27 years showed the highest rate of at-risk gambling compared with older age groups (Metcalf et al, 2022).

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Veteran Gender Data

2023

• 8.2% of veterans scored in the range for at-risk gambling.
• 3.8% of veterans scored in the range for problem gambling.
• Of scores suggesting problem gambling:
  • 43.9% reported suicidal ideation.
  • 19.5% reported past year suicide planning or attempts.

2022

• Males were more likely to report both at-risk gambling and problem gambling when compared to females (Metcalf et al, 2022).

2019

• Men had a more skeptical view of safety measures and a higher risk propensity than women (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Men who had greater academic abilities were more likely to go to college. Thereby, they avoided military service and the possibility of serving in a combat occupation (Breivik et al., 2019).
• On the demand side, the armed forces were more likely to exclude men with lower academic abilities. But they were also more likely to assign such men to combat occupations when they had entered the military system. There was, thus, an overrepresentation of men with lower academic abilities among soldiers and especially in combat occupations (Breivik et al., 2019).

Veteran Risk Data

2022

• Military-related traumatic experience had no unique relationship with gambling problems (Metcalf et al, 2022).

2019

• 60% or more of the variance in sensation seeking is genetically determined (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Soldiers wanted more adventure and challenge after deployment as compared with before (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Along the line of addiction, soldiers increase their tolerance levels to strong stimulations by being exposed to danger (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Soldiers who were lower in Sensation Seeking were more inclined to seek situations with strong sensations after deployment, in contrast with the higher sensation seeking soldiers (Breivik et al., 2019).
• High sensation seeking veterans:
  • Are drawn to gambling, prefer higher odds, and bet more in some types of games (Breivik et al., 2019).
  • Are under stimulated but have a strong reward system (Breivik et al., 2019).
  • Experiment more with drugs, and they also seek stimulation in drinking, smoking, and sexual activities (Breivik et al., 2019).
  • Perceived unpredictable and chaotic situations as more manageable (Breivik et al., 2019).
  • Appraise situations as less risky than low sensation seekers (Breivik et al., 2019).
  • They experience less anxiety and more positive feelings in response to situations with risk (Breivik et al., 2019).

Veteran Socioeconomic Data

2020

• Gambling Disorder is the second strongest predictor of homelessness among veterans, second to illicit drug use (Etuk et al., 2020).

2019

• Several factors such as level of exposure, emotional states, as well as organizational context and culture, may affect assessment and communication of risk (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Sociodemographic background, personality factors, and general mind-set seem to influence soldiers’ risk behavior and choice of career (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Men who had greater academic abilities were more likely to go to college. Thereby, they avoided military service and the possibility of serving in a combat occupation (Breivik et al., 2019).
• On the demand side, the armed forces were more likely to exclude men with lower academic abilities. But they were also more likely to assign such men to combat occupations when they had entered the military system. There was, thus, an overrepresentation of men with lower academic abilities among soldiers and especially in combat occupations (Breivik et al., 2019).

Veteran Suicide Data

2023

• 21.6% of veterans reported experiencing suicidal ideation over the previous year (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• 7.9% of veterans reported suicide planning or attempts (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• At-risk gambling was associated with 2 times increased odds of suicidal ideation (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• Problem gambling was associated with:
  • A nearly 3 times the odds of suicidal ideation, and
  • A nearly 4 times the odds of suicidal planning or attempts (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• Results suggest that gambling problems may contribute to suicide risk in veterans indirectly via depressive symptoms, which in turn may lead to suicidal ideation and behavior (Metcalf et al., 2023).

2020

• 39.5% of veteran compulsive gamblers had previously attempted suicide (Etuk et al., 2020).
• Veterans with Gambling Disorder and chronic pain are 1.9x more likely to attempt suicide than veterans with a pain disorder alone (Etuk et al., 2020).
• Considerable concern about the increased risk for suicide among veterans with problem gambling behavior is warranted(Etuk et al., 2020).
• Gamblers with trauma backgrounds that included experienced physical and emotional abuse were more likely to attempt suicide (Etuk et al., 2020).

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Veteran Trauma Data

2023

• Veterans who gambled were over 7 times more likely to be motivated to do so due to avoid or escape from distress(Dighton, 2023).
• Notable that 8.6% veterans in the current study met criteria for likely PTSD, with 26.6% indicating probable C-PTSD (Dighton, 2023).
• Veterans are almost 7 times more likely than non-veterans to C-PTSD, a diagnosis with more severe criteria than PTSD (Dighton, 2023).
• 6% indicate probable C-PTSD (Dighton, 2023).

2020

• Psychiatric disorders such as PTSD can co-occur at high rates among US veterans receiving residential problem gambling treatment (Etuk et al., 2020).
• Baseline PTSD symptoms were associated with a higher risk of developing problem gambling 10 years later (Etuk et al., 2020).
• Symptoms of PTSD were related to more general cognitive distortions around gambling, including positive gambling expectancies (Etuk et al., 2020).
• Both veterans with Gambling Disorder and non-veterans, symptoms of post-traumatic stress were uniquely related to gambling in response to negative affect, gambling in response to social pressure, and gambling due to a need for excitement (Etuk et al., 2020).

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Veteran Treatment Data

2022

• Veterans with at-risk gambling also reported having sought care primarily for anxiety or depression symptoms, as well as functional impairment (Metcalf et al, 2022).

2020

• Of Veterans seeking treatment for Gambling Disorder:
  • 66% to 79% of veterans indicated that they experienced cravings/urges to gamble (Etuk et al., 2020),
  • 33% met criteria for comorbid substance abuse and Gambling Disorder (Etuk et al., 2020),
  • 29.5% presented a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD (Etuk et al., 2020), and
  • 27% of veterans report problems due to gambling (Etuk et al., 2020).
• VA mental health services were found to underdiagnose problem gambling (PG) among the veteran population(Etuk et al., 2020).
• Studies outside of the DOD and VA healthcare systems have found much higher rates of Gambling Disorder among U.S. Service Members and Veterans (Etuk et al., 2020).

Veteran Volunteer Data

2019

• Volunteers reported greater stress tolerance, concern for others, extraversion, and self-confidence than the non-volunteers (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Volunteers reported greater psychological fitness for military missions and greater hardiness during the military service compared with the non-volunteers (Breivik et al., 2019).

Veteran Risk Factors

Co-Occurring Disorders Risk Factors

• Alcohol dependence and higher risk drinking (Dighton, 2023).
• Co-occurring mental health conditions (Metcalf et al., 2023) (Dighton, 2023) (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Symptoms of PTSD (Metcalf et al, 2022).

Gender Risk Factors

• Identifying as male (Breivik et al., 2019).

Marketing Risk Factors

• Exposure to gambling products and environments (Metcalf et al., 2023).

Socioeconomic Risk Factors

• Being in receipt of benefits (Dighton, 2023).
• Living in supported accommodation (Dighton, 2023).
• Living in privately rented accommodation (Dighton, 2023).
• Unemployment (including those on a disability support pension) (Metcalf et al, 2022).

Military Experience Risk Factors

• Being discharged 9–13 years ago (Dighton, 2023).
• Serving for between 0 and 4 years (Dighton, 2023).
• Serving for between 0 and 4 years (Dighton, 2023).
• Medical discharge (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Operational deployment (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• High sensation seekers are drawn to risky gambling behavior (Breivik et al., 2019).

Treatment Risk Factors

• Veterans receiving DVA treatment support (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Greater numbers of military and non-military (lifetime) traumatic events (Metcalf et al, 2022).

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Veteran Protective Factors

Education Protective Factors

• Achieving a Doctorate as one’s highest qualification (Dighton, 2023).

Military Experience Protective Factors

• Being medically discharged (Dighton, 2023).
• Living with non-family members (Dighton, 2023).
• Serving for between 10 and 19 years (Dighton, 2023).
• Discharge at their own request (Dighton, 2023).
• Discharge due to a reason listed as ‘other’ (Dighton, 2023).
• Not being deployed during their career (Dighton, 2023) (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Being a commissioned officer (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Decorated war veterans (Breivik et al., 2019).
• Volunteering for the military (Breivik et al., 2019).

Socioeconomic Protective Factors

• Living with non-family members (Dighton, 2023).
• In full or part-time paid work (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Strong social support (Etuk et al., 2020).

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Research Recommendations

Raise Awareness

• Veteran-specific problem gambling prevention policies and programs are needed to prevent veteran suicide (Metcalf et al., 2023).
• There is a need for universal prevention strategies for gambling problems in veterans that will cut across those within and outside veteran focused services (Metcalf et al., 2023) (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• A more contextualized understanding of what risk, safety, and accidents mean in organizational life is needed (Breivik et al., 2019).

Media & Marketing

• Reduction in exposure to gambling products and environments (Metcalf et al., 2023).

Risk Management

• Aviator risk management training programs are needed to modify attitudes and risk perception, especially in older and experienced pilots and instructors who are more exposed to risky flying (Breivik et al., 2019).

Screening

• Screening for problem gambling should be undertaken to provide improved treatment and support (Dighton, 2023).
• There is a need for strategies to increase help-seeking for gambling amongst veteran and military populations given that gambling problems are encountered more regularly in treatment for other conditions, identification strategies and responses must be situated in such settings (Metcalf et al, 2022).
• Standardized screening for Gambling Disorder among organizations (DOD military bases, Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, universities with veteran student programming) that serve US veterans is strongly needed, and across healthcare settings that interact with military populations (Etuk et al., 2020).

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